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A strong ERP system helps businesses manage operations, control costs, and improve efficiency. Microsoft Dynamics 365 and SAP are the biggest names in enterprise software, but which is the right fit for your business?

Both platforms help companies manage critical business functions but take different approaches. SAP S/4HANA is built for large enterprises that need industry-specific solutions and customization at scale. Microsoft Dynamics 365 works well for companies that want a cloud-based system that fits into the Microsoft ecosystem.

 We’ll compare pricing, deployment options, integrations, and industry fit to help you decide which ERP makes the most sense for your business. Whether you need an enterprise-grade system tailored to your industry or a flexible, cloud-first solution, this guide lays out the key differences.

Microsoft Dynamics 365 vs SAP S/4HANA- Quick Comparison Table

Feature Microsoft Dynamics 365 SAP S/4HANA
Pricing Model Follows a per-user, per-month pricing model, allowing businesses to pay only for the features they need. Uses a capacity-based pricing model, meaning costs depend on system usage, requiring careful workload analysis.
Predictability & Budgeting Simple and predictable pricing, making budgeting easier for small and mid-sized businesses. More flexible but complex pricing, ideal for enterprises with variable workloads and scalability needs.
Customization Low-code/no-code customization tools let businesses modify workflows, dashboards, and automation with minimal effort. Requires advanced customization, often needing SAP-certified developers and middleware for deep modifications.
Scalability & Growth Modular structure allows businesses to add or remove applications as they grow, ensuring smooth scalability. Highly scalable but requires custom scripts and integrations for expansion, making growth more complex.
Ease of Use & Personalization User-friendly interface with AI-driven recommendations; teams can personalize workflows and dashboards without coding. Offers deep UI customization, but businesses need technical expertise to modify layouts and workflows.
Financial Management Integrated financial tools for automated invoicing, cash flow tracking, budgeting, and real-time insights. Enterprise-grade financial planning, risk management, and compliance with AI-driven forecasting.
Supply Chain & Logistics AI-powered inventory tracking, procurement automation, and logistics optimization for streamlined operations. Advanced supply chain planning, AI-driven supplier management, and multimodal logistics support.
Human Capital Management (HCM) Built-in HR and talent management features, including LinkedIn Talent Hub integration, employee engagement, and workforce analytics. Comprehensive workforce management, including structured payroll, compliance tools, and succession planning.
Analytics & Reporting Power BI integration for interactive dashboards, real-time insights, and predictive analytics. SAP Analytics Cloud provides deep forecasting, real-time reporting, and data visualization tailored for enterprises.
Deployment & Cloud Options Cloud-first with Azure, also supports on-premises and hybrid models for flexibility. Strong on-premises support with evolving cloud and hybrid options for complex IT infrastructures.
Implementation Time 8-12 months on average; structured deployment approach ensures quicker setup and lower disruption. 12-15+ months due to heavy customization and industry-specific configurations, requiring expert resources.
Integration & Ecosystem Seamless integration with Microsoft tools (Azure, Power BI, Office 365) and third-party apps. Requires SAP-specific connectors for integration with external platforms, making it more resource-intensive.
Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) Lower TCO is due to flexible pricing and lower support costs (16% annual maintenance). Higher TCO with a 22% annual maintenance fee, plus additional costs for upgrades and support.
Return on Investment (ROI) Faster ROI with lower upfront costs and quicker implementation. Takes longer to realize ROI due to higher setup and ongoing expenses but offers deep industry customization.

Who Is Microsoft Dynamics 365 For?

Microsoft Dynamics 365 is designed for businesses that need a flexible, all-in-one solution to manage their operations, sales, customer service, and financials. It works well for companies looking to unify their workflows, automate key processes, and gain deeper insights into their business data.

With built-in integrations for Microsoft Office 365, Power BI, and Azure, Dynamics 365 is a great choice for organizations already using Microsoft products. It helps companies of all sizes, from startups needing scalable solutions to enterprises managing complex global operations.

Teams using Dynamics 365 can simplify customer interactions, make smarter decisions with AI-powered insights, and keep their supply chain running smoothly. Since the platform is modular, businesses can select only the applications they need, so they’re not paying for extras they won’t use.

While Dynamics 365 offers enterprise-grade features, its intuitive interface and low-code customization options make it accessible to businesses without large IT teams. If your company prioritizes deep integrations, automation, and a familiar Microsoft environment, Dynamics 365 is a strong contender.

Who Is SAP S/4HANA For?

SAP S/4HANA is built for businesses that need a powerful, enterprise-grade solution to manage complex operations. Designed for industries with extensive supply chains, financial management needs, and regulatory compliance, SAP S/4HANA helps large organizations run efficiently. SAP S/4HANA helps businesses process data in real time, analyze trends, and automate routine tasks. This makes it a solid choice for companies that need better visibility and control over their operations.

It’s built with industry-specific tools, making it a strong fit for manufacturing, healthcare, retail, and finance. Businesses can adjust workflows, integrate with other software, and fine-tune their operations as they expand. Setting up SAP S/4HANA takes time and investment, but companies that make the most of its features often see lasting improvements in efficiency and a stronger market position.

If you’re looking for a solution that centralizes global operations and supports digital transformation, SAP S/4HANA is a strong contender. Visit our in-depth SAP S/4HANA review for more details.

Microsoft Dynamics 365 vs SAP S/4HANA – Feature Comparison

Pricing

When comparing Microsoft Dynamics 365 and SAP S/4HANA, Microsoft Dynamics 365 offers a simple, per-user pricing model, while SAP S/4HANA follows a capacity-based approach, meaning you pay based on system usage.

If your business values predictability, Microsoft Dynamics 365 keeps things straightforward with clear monthly pricing per user. On the other hand, SAP’s pricing is more flexible but requires careful workload analysis, much like a utility bill that varies based on consumption.

Microsoft Dynamics 365 Pricing

With Microsoft Dynamics 365, you only pay for what you need, thanks to its modular pricing structure. Whether you’re managing finances, sales, or customer service, you can pick the apps that fit your business best.

Plan Price What You Get
Dynamics 365 Finance $210 per user/month Full financial management, including budgeting, compliance, and cash flow tracking.
Dynamics 365 Sales Professional $65 per user/month Lead tracking, customer engagement tools, and sales forecasting.
Dynamics 365 Sales Enterprise $105 per user/month AI-powered sales automation and pipeline insights.
Dynamics 365 Customer Service Professional $50 per user/month Case management, knowledge base, and omnichannel support.
Dynamics 365 Customer Service Enterprise $105 per user/month AI-driven case routing and automation.
Dynamics 365 Field Service $105 per user/month Optimized field operations, scheduling, and mobile workforce tools.
Dynamics 365 Human Resources $135 per user/month Employee data management, payroll, benefits, and workforce analytics.

SAP S/4HANA Pricing: Scalable but Complex

SAP doesn’t follow a simple per-user model. Instead, it’s based on Capacity Units (CU) per year, meaning your costs depend on how much system power you use. This model gives enterprises more flexibility, but also requires more planning to estimate costs.

Plan Price What You Get
SAP HANA Cloud $9.48 per CU/year Compute, storage, multi-tiered storage, data integration, and analytics.
Contract Duration 3 to 36 months Pricing is adjusted based on contract length.
Payment Methods Invoice / Credit Card (region-specific) Available payment methods vary by country.

Which ERP Offers Better Pricing?

If simplicity and predictability matter, Microsoft Dynamics 365 is the better choice—it’s like a standard subscription plan where you know what you’ll pay each month.

If your company has highly variable workload requirements and you need scalable computing power, SAP’s pricing model might make more sense. Think of it like cloud storage—paying for capacity rather than individual users.

For small and mid-sized businesses, Dynamics 365 provides a cost-effective, easy-to-budget solution. But larger enterprises with complex IT infrastructures may benefit from SAP’s flexibility, despite the additional planning required.

Customization and Flexibility

Ease of Customization: Can You Make Changes Quickly?

Microsoft Dynamics 365 – If you need to adjust workflows, change fields, or tweak dashboards, Dynamics 365 makes it simple. With low-code and no-code tools, even non-technical users can personalize the system. Need advanced customization? Microsoft’s vast partner ecosystem has you covered.

SAP S/4HANA – SAP gives you powerful customization options, but it’s not beginner-friendly. You’ll need specialized developers or SAP-certified partners to make changes. While it’s great for complex industry requirements, businesses looking for quick, in-house modifications might find it challenging.

Best for quick, in-house customizations: Microsoft Dynamics 365
Best for deep, technical customizations: SAP S/4HANA

Customization Complexity: How Much Work Does It Take?

Microsoft Dynamics 365 – You can modify the system without disrupting core functions. Need to add a new approval process? Adjust automation? It’s straightforward. Third-party apps integrate easily, and updates won’t break custom configurations.

SAP S/4HANA – SAP offers some of the most advanced customization capabilities in the ERP market. But more complexity means more effort. Customizing often requires middleware, scripts, and external consultants, which can slow things down.

If you need agility, go with Dynamics 365. If you need deep industry-specific control, SAP is a better fit.

Modular Scalability: Will It Grow with Your Business?

Microsoft Dynamics 365 – Built with a modular approach, Dynamics 365 lets you add or remove components as your business scales. Microsoft’s Power Platform makes extending features easy without a major overhaul.

SAP S/4HANA – SAP supports scalability, but it’s not as plug-and-play. Expanding functionality usually means developing custom scripts and integrating middleware.

Looking for smooth, incremental growth? Dynamics 365 is the way to go.
Need enterprise-level control over every module? SAP delivers.

Personalization: Can Your Team Make It Their Own?

Microsoft Dynamics 365 – Want to customize your dashboard or personalize workflows? You can do that without touching a single line of code. The interface is intuitive, and AI-driven recommendations help users make the most of their system.

SAP S/4HANA – SAP allows for deep UI customization, but it requires technical expertise. If you want to change layouts or add specific industry workflows, a developer will likely need to step in.

For user-friendly personalization, Dynamics 365 is the better choice.
For technical, in-depth customization, SAP is stronger—but it takes work.

Which One is Right for Your Business?

If ease of use and flexibility are key, Dynamics 365 is a stronger choice. If you’re working in a highly regulated industry or have complex, global operations, SAP S/4HANA provides powerful customization—just be prepared for longer implementation times.

Want to see how these ERP systems fit your business needs? Get in touch with our expert today.

Financial Management

Microsoft Dynamics 365

Microsoft Dynamics 365 removes the complexity of financial management by integrating everything into a single, easy-to-use platform. It’s designed for businesses that want automation, real-time insights, and seamless collaboration across departments.

  • General Ledger – Keeps track of all financial transactions while ensuring accuracy and compliance with automated journal entries.
  • Accounts Receivable and Payable – Say goodbye to manual invoicing! Automate your billing, collections, and payments to reduce errors and speed up cash flow.
  • Budgeting and Forecasting – No more guesswork. Predictive analytics help you plan ahead with confidence, ensuring you allocate resources wisely.
  • Cash Flow Management – Always know where your money is. Get real-time insights into liquidity, helping you make smarter financial decisions.
  • Tax Management – Never miss a tax deadline. Stay compliant with global tax regulations while automating calculations and reporting.

SAP S/4HANA

SAP S/4HANA is tailored for enterprises that need detailed financial oversight, risk management, and multi-country compliance. It offers extensive real-time analytics and automation for handling large-scale financial operations.

  • Financial Planning and Analysis – Get a 360-degree view of your financial health with AI-driven insights that help you optimize revenue and costs.
  • Accounting and Financial Close – Close your books faster with automated reconciliation, ensuring accuracy and compliance with industry standards.
  • Treasury and Risk Management – Manage liquidity, forecast financial risks, and optimize treasury operations in real time.
  • Accounts Payable and Billing – Streamline invoice processing and supplier payments with automated workflows, reducing bottlenecks and delays.
  • Tax Compliance – Stay ahead of ever-changing global tax laws while minimizing compliance risks with built-in automation.

Which One is Right for Your Business?

If you need a finance solution that’s easy to use, integrates seamlessly with Microsoft tools, and gets you up and running quickly, Dynamics 365 is an excellent choice. But if your business requires enterprise-level financial control, advanced analytics, and global compliance, SAP S/4HANA is built for that scale.

Your decision comes down to your business size, complexity, and how much customization you need. Either way, both platforms offer cutting-edge financial management capabilities—you just have to choose the one that fits your growth strategy best.

Supply Chain & Logistics Management

Microsoft Dynamics 365

If you need speed, automation, and flexibility in your supply chain, Dynamics 365 delivers. It’s designed to help businesses optimize inventory, streamline procurement, and cut logistics costs with AI-powered insights.

  • Always Stay Stocked – With AI-powered inventory tracking and automated replenishment, you’ll never worry about stock outs or over-ordering.
  • Smart Procurement Made Simple – Get real-time vendor insights, automated purchase approvals, and seamless supplier collaboration to keep operations running smoothly.
  • Faster, More Cost-Effective DeliveriesOptimize routes, automate freight management, and track shipments in real time to keep deliveries on schedule.

SAP S/4HANA

For enterprises that manage large-scale supply chains with strict compliance needs, SAP S/4HANA is built to handle it all. Its deep logistics and procurement tools keep supply chains efficient—no matter how complex.

  • Predict & Plan Smarter – SAP’s material planning and batch tracking help you maintain efficiency while reducing waste.
  • Stronger Supplier ManagementSAP Ariba’s AI-guided buying and sourcing tools ensure better contracts, cost savings, and compliance.
  • Enterprise-Grade LogisticsMultimodal transportation, sustainability tracking, and global trade compliance make SAP the best choice for large-scale logistics.

Which One is Right for Your Business?

  • Need agility, AI-driven automation, and a system that’s easy to use? Go with Dynamics 365.
  • Running a global enterprise with complex logistics and strict compliance? SAP S/4HANA is built for you.

Human Capital Management

Core HR and Payroll

Microsoft Dynamics 365 Human Resources provides an easy-to-use system for managing employee records, benefits, and compliance. It integrates well with Microsoft tools, making it a natural fit for businesses already using Microsoft’s ecosystem.

SAP S/4HANA HCM is designed for enterprises handling complex payroll and compliance needs across multiple regions. It ensures adherence to local regulations and supports large-scale workforce management.

Talent Management

Microsoft Dynamics 365 simplifies hiring with LinkedIn Talent Hub integration. It streamlines recruitment, onboarding, and performance tracking, making it simple for businesses to attract and retain talent.

SAP S/4HANA HCM offers a more structured approach with built-in goal setting, succession planning, and performance management tools. It suits companies looking for a long-term talent development strategy.

Employee Experience

Microsoft Dynamics 365 enhances employee engagement through a self-service portal for accessing personal records, requesting time off, and tracking training progress.

SAP S/4HANA HCM focuses on workplace satisfaction by using surveys and sentiment analysis to gather employee feedback, helping businesses improve retention and engagement.

Learning and Development

Microsoft Dynamics 365 allows organizations to create custom training programs aligned with business needs, helping employees upskill efficiently.

SAP S/4HANA HCM provides structured corporate training, including e-learning and instructor-led programs, ensuring continuous workforce development.

Workforce Planning and Analytics

Microsoft Dynamics 365 offers workforce insights to optimize resource allocation and improve HR decision-making.

SAP S/4HANA HCM takes a data-driven approach with predictive analytics, helping businesses plan for future workforce needs and operational efficiency.

Which One is Right for Your Business?

Dynamics 365 suits growing businesses needing easy HR tools and Microsoft integration, while SAP S/4HANA is best for large-scale workforce management.

Analytics and Reporting

Microsoft Dynamics 365

Microsoft Dynamics 365 is built with data-driven decision-making in mind. Whether it’s real-time tracking, predictive analytics, or custom reports, this platform ensures businesses stay ahead of trends and challenges.

  • Seamless Power BI Integration – Unlike many ERP solutions that require third-party analytics tools, Dynamics 365 natively integrates with Power BI. This means you get interactive dashboards and real-time visualizations without extra setup or licensing costs.
  • Live Tracking of Financial & Operational Data – With real-time analytics, businesses can monitor their financial performance, sales trends, and operational efficiency without waiting for periodic reports.
  • Tailored Reporting for Every Business NeedOver 300 built-in reports and customizable dashboards allow teams to create reports that fit their exact requirements—whether it’s cash flow analysis, inventory insights, or customer trends.
  • AI-Powered Forecasting & Predictive InsightsWith AI-driven analytics, Dynamics 365 doesn’t just tell you what happened—it predicts what’s next. Businesses can use machine learning models to identify future demand trends, risk factors, and revenue opportunities.
  • Unified Data for a Holistic View – The platform pulls data from multiple sources, ensuring decision-makers have a 360-degree view of operations rather than working with fragmented reports.

SAP S/4HANA

SAP S/4HANA is designed for large-scale businesses that require deep, enterprise-grade analytics. Its built-in AI and SAP Analytics Cloud deliver powerful forecasting and planning tools.

  • SAP Analytics Cloud for Advanced Business Intelligence – SAP’s cloud-based analytics suite delivers powerful insights, enabling users to explore data, generate reports, and visualize trends in real-time.
  • AI-Powered Forecasting for Smarter Decision-Making – SAP S/4HANA’s AI models analyze historical trends and current business conditions to generate accurate predictive forecasts.
  • Embedded Analytics for Real-Time Operational Insights – Unlike traditional ERP solutions, SAP S/4HANA embeds analytics directly into core business processes. This means that finance, HR, and supply chain teams can access insights within their workflows, reducing dependency on standalone reporting tools.
  • Comprehensive Planning & Financial Analysis – SAP’s planning tools enable businesses to align financial strategies with real-time operational data, making it easier to adjust budgets and forecasts based on live performance metrics.
  • Enterprise-Level Data Warehousing – SAP centralizes data across departments, ensuring that large organizations with complex operations can rely on a single source of truth.

Which One is Right for Your Business?

Choose Dynamics 365 for AI-driven insights, real-time tracking & scalability. Pick SAP S/4HANA for deep analytics, financial planning & enterprise data.

Deployment and Cloud Options

Choosing between Microsoft Dynamics 365 and SAP S/4HANA depends on how much control and flexibility your business needs.

Microsoft Dynamics 365

Built on Microsoft Azure, Dynamics 365 offers multiple deployment options

Cloud-Based – A fully managed service where security, updates, and scalability are handled for you. Ideal for businesses that want to focus on operations without worrying about IT maintenance.

On-Premises – A better fit for companies that need full control over their infrastructure and data, particularly those with strict compliance or security requirements.

Hybrid Model – A flexible approach that lets businesses keep critical systems on-premises while gradually moving certain functions to the cloud.

SAP S/4HANA

SAP’s cloud and on-premise flexibility makes it a strong choice for complex businesses

Public Cloud – A subscription-based model where SAP handles all maintenance, making it a good fit for businesses that want to scale quickly without dealing with infrastructure management.

Private Cloud – Designed for companies that need more control and customization, while still taking advantage of cloud-based flexibility and remote access.

On-Premises – A preferred choice for enterprises that require full system control, deep customization, and strict compliance measures.

Hybrid Approach – Allows businesses to keep critical processes on-premise while leveraging cloud-based tools for agility and innovation.

Which One Fits Your Business?

Dynamics 365’s cloud-first approach suits modern businesses, while SAP’s on-premise model fits large enterprises. Both support hybrid, but Dynamics 365 integrates faster.

Implementation Time & Complexity

Deployment Speed

How long does it take to get up and running?

 Microsoft Dynamics 365 typically takes 8-12 months to implement, following a structured deployment approach that helps businesses stay on track. With clear guidance and prebuilt templates, organizations can move through setup and customization more efficiently, reducing delays and unexpected hurdles.

SAP S/4HANA, can take anywhere from 6 to 15+ months—or even longer for large enterprises. The timeline depends on complex configurations, industry-specific requirements, and customization needs. Businesses with highly tailored workflows often experience extended deployments due to the need for SAP specialists and extensive testing cycles.

Customization & Technical Complexity

How easy is it to tailor the ERP to your business?

 With Microsoft Dynamics 365, customization is more accessible thanks to low-code tools and built-in connections to Microsoft 365, Power BI, and Azure AI. Businesses can adjust workflows, reports, and dashboards without heavy coding, making it easier for internal IT teams to handle modifications without relying on external specialists.

SAP S/4HANA, on the other hand, is highly configurable but requires SAP expertise to make meaningful changes. Customization often involves specialized development teams, which can extend deployment time and increase costs.

Integration & Resource Requirements

How easily can your ERP connect with existing systems?

 If your business already uses Microsoft tools like Azure, Office 365, and Power BI, Dynamics 365 fits right in. It’s designed to work smoothly within Microsoft’s ecosystem, so your IT team won’t need to spend extra time or money on complex integrations.

SAP S/4HANA, on the other hand, requires specialized connectors to integrate with third-party applications. Businesses with industry-specific requirements may need additional customization and external tools to sync SAP with their existing tech stack.

Which One Fits Your Business?

If you want an IT-friendly ERP that integrates with familiar tools, Dynamics 365 is the more convenient choice. But if your business demands deep industry customization and specialized integrations, SAP S/4HANA offers more flexibility—though it may require extra effort to set up.

Total Cost of Ownership (TCO)

1. Licensing Model

With Microsoft Dynamics 365, you pay for only what you need. There’s no paying for extra features you’ll never use—just a clear, straightforward pricing model that keeps costs predictable.

SAP S/4HANA, on the other hand, has a more complex pricing structure. Costs depend on users, modules, and how you deploy it. If you prefer a predictable budget, SAP’s layered approach might require some extra planning.

2. Implementation Costs

If your business already runs on Microsoft tools, Dynamics 365 fits right in. Setup is quicker, costs less, and because the interface feels familiar, your team won’t need weeks of training.

SAP S/4HANA requires customization, which increases costs and extends the setup time. If your business needs a customized system and has the budget, it can be a strong long-term investment.

3. Ongoing Maintenance

Microsoft Dynamics 365 has a 16% annual maintenance fee, keeping ongoing costs manageable.

SAP S/4HANA charges 22% for maintenance, plus additional costs for upgrades and support—something to consider when planning long-term expenses.

4. ROI & Long-Term Value

With Dynamics 365, businesses see returns faster thanks to lower upfront and ongoing costs.

SAP S/4HANA delivers deep customization and industry-specific capabilities, but the higher costs mean it takes longer to realize financial benefits.

Factors to Consider Before Choosing Between Microsoft Dynamics 365 and SAP S/4HANA

Factor Microsoft Dynamics 365 SAP S/4HANA
Suitability for Business Sizes Works well for small, medium, and large businesses. Companies can scale as they grow without major disruptions. Best suited for large enterprises with complex operations. Small and mid-sized businesses may find the setup and customization overwhelming.
Built-in Strengths Designed to work smoothly with Microsoft’s ecosystem. It integrates with Office 365, Power BI, and Azure, making it easy for teams to collaborate. Built for industries that need deep customization. Comes with strong enterprise tools and a wide network of implementation partners.
CRM & Supply Chain Management Comes with built-in CRM and supply chain management features, so businesses don’t need extra tools to manage sales and logistics. Strong supply chain capabilities, but businesses often need additional SAP solutions to get a full CRM setup.
Reporting & Business Intelligence (BI) Uses Power BI for real-time data insights, interactive dashboards, and easy-to-read reports. Uses SAP Analytics Cloud for advanced data analysis. Best for businesses that handle large datasets and need deep forecasting.
Security & Compliance Runs on Microsoft Azure, so businesses benefit from built-in security and compliance standards. A good option for companies handling sensitive data. Comes with strong security features and compliance tools. Works best when hosted on Azure for added protection and regulatory support.

Microsoft Dynamics 365 vs. SAP S/4HANA: Which One is Right for Your Business?

Both Microsoft Dynamics 365 and SAP S/4HANA are powerful ERP platforms, but their strengths cater to different needs. Microsoft Dynamics 365 is ideal for businesses seeking a cloud-based, cost-effective solution that integrates with Azure, Power BI, and Office 365, while SAP S/4HANA is designed for large enterprises needing deep industry customization and advanced financial management.

Who Should Choose Microsoft Dynamics 365?

  • Best for small to mid-sized businesses that need a scalable, user-friendly
  • Low-code customization and modular structure allow easy adjustments.
  • Predictable per-user pricing simplifies budgeting.
  • Faster implementation with seamless Microsoft integration.

Consideration: May lack SAP’s deep industry-specific features.

Who Should Choose SAP S/4HANA?

Best for large enterprises managing complex global operations.
Industry-specific tools, advanced financial planning, and supply chain control.
Highly customizable, but requires SAP-certified expertise.

Consideration: Higher costs and longer setup time due to customization.

Dynamics 365 is a flexible, cost-effective option for growing businesses, while SAP S/4HANA excels in large-scale, industry-specific needs.

Once you’ve made your decision, navigating implementation and optimization can be challenging. Leave it to our certified Microsoft Dynamics 365 consultant /SAP experts for smooth and expert implementation.